Lab Review 3 Vert Coumn Jointd Fetal Skull
Although the word skeleton comes from the Greek word meaning "stale-up body", our internal framework is so beautifully designed and engineered that information technology puts whatever modernistic skyscraper to shame.
Functions of the Skeletal Arrangement
As well contributing to body shape and form, our bones perform several of import trunk functions.
- Support. Bones, the "steel girders" and "reinforced concrete" of the trunk, form the internal framework that supports the body and cradle its soft organs; the bones of the legs act as pillars to support the body trunk when we stand, and the rib muzzle supports the thoracic wall.
- Protection. Bones protect soft body organs; for example, the fused basic of the skull provide a snug enclosure for the brain, the vertebrae environment the spinal cord, and the rib cage helps protect the vital organs of the thorax.
- Motility. Skeletal muscles, attached to bones by tendons, utilize the basic every bit levers to move the body and its parts.
- Storage. Fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones; bone itself serves as a storehouse for minerals, the most important of which are calcium and phosphorus; because most of the body'due south calcium is deposited in the bones as calcium salts, the bones are a user-friendly place to get more than calcium ions for the claret as they are used up.
- Blood cell formation. Blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs within the marrow cavities of certain basic.
Anatomy of the Skeletal System
The skeleton is subdivided into two divisions: the axial skeleton, the bones that class the longitudinal axis of the body, and the appendicular skeleton, the bones of the limbs and girdles.
Classification of Bones
The adult skeleton is equanimous of 206 bones and in that location are ii basic types of osseous, or bone, tissue: compact os and spongy os, and are classified into four groups according to shape: long, brusk, flat, and irregular.
- Compact bone. Compact bone is dense and looks smooth and homogeneous.
- Spongy os. Spongy os is composed of long, needle-similar pieces of bone and lots of open space.
- Long bones. Long bones are typically longer than they are wide; as a dominion, they have a shaft with heads at both ends, and are more often than not meaty bone.
- Short bones. Curt basic are generally cube-shaped and more often than not contains spongy bone; sesamoid basic, which class within tendons, are a special type of short bone.
- Flat bones. Flat bones are thin, flattened, and commonly curved; they have two thin layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them.
- Irregular bones. Bones that practise not fit 1 of the preceding categories are called irregular bones.
Long Bone
The construction of a long bone is shown both through gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy.
Gross Beefcake
The gross structure of a long os consists of the following:
- Diaphysis. The diaphysis, or shaft, makes upwards most of the bone's length and is composed of compact bone; information technology is covered and protected by a fibrous connective tissue membrane, the periosteum.
- Sharpey'due south fibers. Hundreds of connective tissue fibers called perforating or Sharpey'southward, fibers secure the periosteum to the underlying bone.
- Epiphyses. The epiphyses are the ends of the long bone; each epiphysis consists of a sparse layer of compact bone enclosing an area filled with spongy bone.
- Articular cartilage. Articular cartilage, instead of a periosteum, covers its external surface; considering the articular cartilage is glassy hyaline cartilage, information technology provides a smooth, slippery surface that decreases friction at joint surfaces.
- Epiphyseal line. In developed bones, there is a sparse line of bony tissue spanning the epiphysis that looks a fleck different from the rest of the bone in the surface area; this is the epiphyseal line.
- Epiphyseal plate. The epiphyseal line is a remnant of the epiphyseal plate (a flat plate of hyaline cartilage) seen in young, growing os; epiphyseal plates tin can cause the lengthwise growth of a long bone; by the end of puberty, when hormones inhibit long bone growth, epiphyseal plates accept been completely replaced by basic, leaving only the epiphyseal lines to mark their previous location.
- Xanthous marrow. In adults, the cavity of the shaft is primarily a storage area for adipose (fat) tissue chosen the yellow marrow, or medullary, crenel.
- Red marrow. Nonetheless, in infants, this area forms blood cells and cherry-red marrow is constitute at that place; in adult basic, red marrow is bars to cavities in the spongy os of flat bones and epiphyses of some long bones.
- Bone markings. Even when looking casually at bones, 1 tin see that their surfaces are not smoothen only scarred with bumps, holes, and ridges; these bone markings reveal where muscles, tendons, and ligaments were attached and where blood vessels and fretfulness passed.
- Categories of os markings. There are two categories of bone markings: (a) projections, or processes, which grow out from the bone surface, and (b) depressions, or cavities which are indentations in the bone; a fiddling fob for remembering some of the bone markings are all the terms outset with T are projections, while those beginning with F (except facet) are depressions.
Microscopic Anatomy
To the naked eye, spongy bone has a spiky, open appearance, whereas compact bone appears to be very dense.
- Osteocytes. The mature os cells, osteocytes, are establish within the matrix in tiny cavities called lacunae.
- Lamellae. The lacunae are bundled in concentric circles chosen lamellae effectually central (Haversian) canals.
- Osteon. Each circuitous consisting of fundamental canals and matrix rings is called an osteon, or Haversian system.
- Canaliculi. Tiny canals, canaliculi, radiate outward from the primal canals to all lacunae; the canaliculi class a transportation system that connects all the bone cells to the food supply through the hard bone matrix.
- Perforating canals. The communication pathway from the outside of the bone to its interior (and the primal canals) is completed by perforating (Volkmann'south) canals, which encounter the compact bone at right angles to the shaft.
Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton, which forms the longitudinal axis of the trunk, is divided into 3 parts: the skull, the vertebral column, and the bony thorax.
Skull
The skull is formed past two sets of bones: the attic and the facial basic.
Attic
The cranium encloses and protects the fragile brain tissue and is composed of eight big flat bones.
- Frontal bone. The frontal bone forms the brow, the bony projections under the eyebrows, and the superior part of each eye's orbits.
- Parietal bones. The paired parietal bones form most of the superior and lateral walls of the cranium; they encounter in the midline of the skull at the sagittal suture and form the coronal suture, where they meet the frontal bone.
- Temporal bones. The temporal bones lie inferior to the parietal bones; they bring together them at the squamous sutures.
There are several os markings that appear at the temporal bone :
- External acoustic meatus. The external acoustic meatus is a canal that leads to the eardrum and middle ear; it is the road by which sound enters the ear.
- Styloid process. The styloid process, a sharp, needlelike project, is simply inferior to the external auditory meatus.
- Zygomatic process. The zygomatic procedure is a thin bridge of bone that joins with the cheekbone (zygomatic bone) anteriorly.
- Mastoid process. The mastoid process, which full of air cavities (mastoid sinuses), is a rough project posterior and inferior to the external acoustic meatus; information technology provides an attachment site for some muscles of the neck.
- Jugular foramen. The jugular foramen, at the junction of the occipital and temporal bones, allows passage of the jugular vein, the largest vein of the head, which drains the brain; only anterior to it in the cranial cavity is the internal audio-visual meatus, which transmits cranial nerves Seven and VIII.
- Occipital os. The occipital bone joins the parietal bones anteriorly at the lambdoid suture; in the base of the occipital os is a large opening, the foramen magnum, which surrounds the lower role of the brain allows the spinal string to connect with the brain.
- Sphenoid os. The butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width of the skull and forms role of the flooring of the cranial cavity; in the midline of the sphenoid is a small depression, the sella turcica or Turk'south saddle, which forms a snug enclosure for the pituitary gland.
- Foramen ovale. The foramen ovale, a big oval opening in line with the posterior terminate of the sella turcica, allows fibers of cranial nerve Five to pass to the chewing muscles of the lower jaw.
- Optic canal. The optic culvert allows the optic nervus to laissez passer to the eye.
- Superior orbital cleft. The slitlike superior orbital fissure is where the cranial nerves controlling eye movements pass.
- Sphenoid sinuses. The central function of the sphenoid bone is riddled with air cavities, the sphenoid sinuses.
- Ethmoid os. The ethmoid bone is very irregularly shaped and lies inductive to the sphenoid; it forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the medial walls of the orbits.
- Crista galli. Projecting from its superior surface is the crista galli; the outermost covering of the encephalon attaches to this project.
- Cribriform plates. These holey areas, the cribriform plates, allow nerve fibers carrying impulses from the olfactory receptors of the olfactory organ to achieve the encephalon.
- Superior and middle nasal conchae. Extensions of the ethmoid bone, the superior and centre nasal conchae, form part of the lateral walls of the nasal cavity and increment the turbulence of air flowing through the nasal passages.
Facial Bones
Fourteen bones etch the face; twelve are paired, only the mandible and vomer are single.
- Maxillae. The two maxillae, or maxillary bones, fuse to grade the upper jaw; all facial bones except the mandible join the maxillae; thus, they are the primary or "keystone", bones of the confront; the maxillae carry the upper teeth in the alveolar margin.
- Palatine bones. The paired palatine bones lie posterior to the palatine processes of the maxillae; they form the posterior role of the hard palate.
- Zygomatic basic. The zygomatic bones are unremarkably referred to as the cheek bones; they also form a adept-sized portion of the lateral walls of the orbits, or eye sockets.
- Lacrimal bones. The lacrimal bones are finger-sized basic forming part of the medial walls of each orbit; each lacrimal basic has a groove that serves as a passageway for tears.
- Nasal bones. The small rectangular basic forming the bridge of the nose are the nasal bones.
- Vomer bone. The single bone in the medial line of the nasal cavity is the vomer; the vomer forms most of the bony nasal septum.
- Inferior nasal conchae. The interior nasal conchae are thin, curved basic projecting medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
- Mandible. The mandible, or lower jaw, is the largest and strongest bone of the face; information technology joins the temporal bones on each side of the face, forming the just freely movable joints in the skull; the horizontal role of the mandible (the body) forms the mentum; ii upright confined of bone (the rami) extend from the body to connect the mandible to the temporal bone.
The Hyoid Bone
Though not really part of the skull, the hyoid bone is closely related to the mandible and temporal bones.
- Location. It is suspended in the midneck region about two cm (1 inch) above the larynx, where it is anchored by ligaments to the styloid processes of the temporal bones.
- Parts. Horseshoe-shaped, with a trunk and ii pairs of horns, or cornua, the hyoid bone serves as a movable base for the natural language and as an attachment point for neck muscles that raise and lower the larynx when we eat and speak.
Fetal Skull
The skull of a fetus or newborn baby is different in many ways from an adult skull.
- Size. The developed skull represents just i-eighth of the full body length, whereas that of a newborn babe is i-quaternary as long as its unabridged torso.
- Fontanels. In the newborn, the skull too has a fibrous regions that take yet to be converted to os; these fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones are called fontanels.
- Anterior fontanel. The largest fontanel is the diamond-shaped anterior fontanel; the fontanel allows the fetal skull to be compressed slightly during birth.
Vertebral Column (Spine)
Serving as the axial back up of the body, the vertebral column, or spine, extends from the skull, which it supports, to the pelvis, where information technology transmits the weight of the body to the lower limbs.
- Composition. The spine is formed from 26 irregular bones connected and reinforced past ligaments in such a mode that a flexible, curved construction results.
- Spinal cord. Running through the primal crenel of the vertebral cavalcade is the fragile spinal cord, which the vertebral column surrounds and protects.
- Vertebrae. Before nascence, the spine consists of 33 separate bones called vertebrae, simply 9 of these eventually fuse to form the two composite basic, the sacrum and the coccyx, that construct the inferior portion of the vertebral column.
- Cervical vertebrae. Of the 24 single basic, the 7 vertebrae of the cervix are cervical vertebrae.
- Thoracic vertebrae. The next 12 are the thoracic vertebrae.
- Lumbar vertebrae. The remaining 5 supporting the lower dorsum are lumbar vertebrae.
- Intervertebral discs. The individual vertebrae are separated by pads of flexible fibrocartilage-intervertebral discs- that absorber the vertebrae and absorb shock while assuasive the spine flexibility.
- Primary curvatures. The spinal curves in the thoracic and sacral regions are referred to equally primary curvatures considering they are present when we are born.
- Secondary curvatures. The curvatures in the cervical and lumbar regions are referred to as secondary curvatures because they develop some time later on nascency.
- Torso or centrum. Disc-like, weight-bearing part of the vertebra facing anteriorly in the vertebral column.
- Vertebral curvation. Arch formed from the joining of all posterior extensions, the laminae and pedicles, from the vertebral body.
- Vertebral foramen. Canal through which the spinal cord passes.
- Transverse processes. Two lateral projections from the vertebral arch.
- Barbed process. Unmarried projection arising from the posterior aspect of the vertebral arch (actually the fused laminate).
- Superior and inferior articular processes. Paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen, allowing a vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebrae.
Cervical Vertebrae
The seven cervical vertebrae (C1 to C7) form the neck region of the spine.
- Atlas. The atlas (C1) has no body; the superior surfaces of its transverse processes contain large depressions that receive the occipital condyles of the skull.
- Centrality. The axis (C2) acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas (and skull) to a higher place; it has a large upright process, the dens, which acts as the pivot indicate.
- Foramina. The transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae contain foramina (openings) through which the vertebral arteries pass on their manner to the brain above.
Thoracic Vertebrae
The twelve thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) are all typical.
- Size. They are larger than the cervical vertebrae and are distinguished by the fact that they are the only vertebrae to articulate with the ribs.
- Shape. The body is somewhat center-shaped and has two costal facets on each side, which receive the heads of the ribs.
- Transverse processes. The two transverse processes of each thoracic vertebrae articulate with the nearby knoblike tubercles of the ribs.
- Spinous process. The spinous process is long and hooks sharply downward, causing the vertebra to expect like a giraffe's caput viewed from the side.
Lumbar Vertebrae
The 5 lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) take massive, blocklike bodies.
- Spinous processes. Their short, hatchet-shaped spinous processes make them look like a moose head from the lateral aspect.
- Strength. Considering most of the stress on the vertebral cavalcade occurs in the lumbar region, these are the sturdiest of the vertebrae.
Sacrum
The sacrum is formed past the fusion of 5 vertebrae.
- Alae. The winglike alae articulate laterally with the hip bones, forming the sacroiliac joints.
- Median sacral crest. Its posterior midline surface is roughened by the median sacral crest, the fused spinous processes of the sacral vertebrae.
- Posterior sacral foramina. This is flanked laterally by the posterior sacral foramina.
- Sacral culvert. The vertebral canal continues inside the sacrum as the sacral canal and terminates in a large junior opening called the sacral hiatus.
Coccyx
The coccyx is formed from the fusion of iii to 5 tiny, irregular shaped vertebrae.
- Tailbone. It is the human "tailbone", a remnant of the tail that other vertebrate animals have.
Thoracic Cage
The sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae brand upwardly the bony thorax; The bony thorax is routinely chosen the thoracic cage because it forms a protective, cone-shaped cage of slender bones effectually the organs of the thoracic cavity.
Sternum
The sternum (breastbone) is a typical flat bone and the result of the fusion of three basic- the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process.
- Landmarks. The sternum has three important bony landmarks- the jugular notch, the sternal angle, and the xiphisternal articulation.
- Jugular notch. The jugular notch (concave upper border of the manubrium) can be palpated easily, mostly it is at the level of the tertiary thoracic vertebra.
- Sternal angle. The sternal angle results where the manubrium and the trunk meet at a slight angle to each other, and so that a transverse ridge is formed at the level of the second ribs.
- Xiphisternal joint. The xiphisternal articulation, the indicate where the sternal body and xiphoid procedure fuse, lies at the level of the 9th thoracic vertebra.
Ribs
Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony thorax.
- True ribs. The true ribs, the first 7 pairs, attach directly to the sternum by costal cartilages.
- False ribs. False ribs, the next v pairs, either attach indirectly to the sternum or are non attached to the sternum at all.
- Floating ribs. The last two pairs of false ribs lack the sternal attachments, so they are called the floating ribs.
Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is equanimous of 126 bones of the limbs and the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which attach the limbs to the centric skeleton.
Basic of the Shoulder Girdle
Each shoulder girdle, or pectoral girdle, consists of ii bones – a clavicle and a scapula.
- Clavicle. The clavicle, or collarbone, is a slender, doubly curved bone; it attaches to the manubrium of the sternum medially and to the scapula laterally, where it helps to grade the shoulder articulation; it acts equally a caryatid to agree the arm away from the top of the thorax and helps foreclose shoulder dislocation.
- Scapulae. The scapulae, or shoulder blades, are triangular and commonly called "wings" because they flare when we move our arms posteriorly.
- Parts of the scapula. Each scapula has a flattened body and 2 of import processes- the acromion and the coracoid.
- Acromion. The acromion is the enlarged end of the spine of the scapula and connects with the clavicle laterally at the acromioclavicular articulation.
- Coracoid. The beaklike coracoid procedure points over the top of the shoulder and anchors some of the muscles of the arm; only medial to the coracoid procedure is the big suprascapular notch, which serves as a nervus passageway.
- Borders of the scapula. The scapula has three borders- superior, medial (vertebral), and lateral (axillary).
- Angles of the scapula. It also has iii angles- superior, inferior, and lateral; the glenoid cavity, a shallow socket that receives the head of the arm bone, is in the lateral angle.
- Factors to free movement of the shoulder girdle. Each shoulder girdle attaches to the axial skeleton at only ane betoken- the sternoclavicular joint; the loose zipper of the scapula allows information technology to slide back and forth against the thorax as muscles act; and, the glenoid cavity is shallow, and the shoulder joint is poorly reinforced by ligaments.
Bones of the Upper Limb
Thirty carve up basic form the skeletal framework of each upper limb; they form the foundations of the arm, forearm, and hand.
Arm
The arm is formed by a single bone, the humerus, which is a typical long bone.
- Anatomical cervix. Immediately inferior to the head is a slight constriction called anatomical neck.
- Tubercles. Anterolateral to the head are two bony projections separated past the intertubercular sulcus– the greater and lesser tubercles, which are sites of musculus attachment.
- Surgical neck. Just distal to the tubercles is the surgical neck, and then named because it is the virtually often fractured function of the humerus.
- Deltoid tuberosity. In the midpoint of the shaft is a roughened area called the deltoid tuberosity, where the large, fleshy deltoid muscle of the shoulder attaches.
- Radial groove. Nearby, the radial groove runs obliquely down the posterior aspect of the shaft; this groove marks the course of the radial nerve, an important nerve of the upper limb.
- Trochlea and capitulum. At the distal end of the humerus is the medial trochlea, which looks somewhat like a spool, and the lateral ball-like capitulum; both of these processes clear with the basic of the forearm.
- Fossa. Above the trochlea anteriorly is a depression, the coronoid fossa; on the posterior surface is the olecranon fossa; these 2 depressions, which are flanked by medial and lateral epicondyles, allow the corresponding processes of the ulna to move freely when the elbow is bent and extended.
Forearm
2 bones, the radius, and the ulna, form the skeleton of the forearm.
- Radius. When the trunk is in the anatomical position, the radius is the lateral bone; that is, information technology is on the pollex side of the forearm; when the hand is rotated so that the palm faces backward, the distal stop of the radius crosses over and ends up medial to the ulna.
- Radioulnar Joints. Both proximally and distally the radius and ulna articulate at small radioulnar joints and the two bones are connected along their unabridged length by the flexible interosseous membrane.
- Styloid process. Both the ulna and the radius have as styloid process at their distal stop.
- Radial tuberosity. The disc-shaped head of the radius also forms a joint with the capitulum of the humerus; merely below the caput is the radial tuberosity, where the tendon of the biceps muscle attaches.
- Ulna. When the upper limb is in the anatomical position, the ulna is the medial os (on the little-finger side) of the forearm.
- Trochlear notch. On its proximal end are the coronoid process and the posterior olecranon procedure, which are separated past the trochlear notch; together, these two processes grip the trochlea of the humerus in a pliers-similar joint.
Hand
The skeleton of the hand consists of carpals, the metacarpals, and the phalanges.
- Carpal bones. The eight carpal basic, bundled in two irregular rows of four basic each, course the function of the hand called carpus, or, more ordinarily, the wrist; the carpals are bound together by ligaments that restrict movements betwixt them.
- Metacarpals. The metacarpals are numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb side of the hand to the little finger; when the fist is clenched, the heads of the metacarpals get obvious as the "knuckles".
- Phalanges. The phalanges are the basic of the fingers; each hand contains 14 phalanges; there are three in each finger (proximal, middle, and distal), except in the thumb, which has merely two )proximal and distal.
Basic of the Pelvic Girdle
The pelvic girdle is formed by 2 coxal basic, or ossa coxae, commonly chosen hip bones.
- Pelvic girdle. The basic of the pelvic girdle are big and heavy, and they are attached securely to the axial skeleton; bearing weight is the most important function of this girdle because the total weight of the upper torso rests on the bony pelvis.
- Sockets. The sockets, which receives the thigh bones, are deep and heavily reinforced past ligaments that attach the limbs firmly to the girdle.
- Bony pelvis. The reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and part of the large intestine lie within and are protected by the bony pelvis.
- Ilium. The ilium, which connects posteriorly with the sacrum at the sacroiliac articulation, is a large, flaring bone that forms most of the hip bone; when yous put your hands on your hips, they are resting over the alae, or winglike portions, of the ilia.
- Iliac crest. The upper edge of an ala, the iliac crest, is an important anatomical landmark that is ever kept in mind by those who give intramuscular injections; the iliac crest ends anteriorly in the anterior superior iliac spine and posteriorly in the posterior superior iliac spine.
- Ischium. The ischium is the "sit down-down" bone, and then called because information technology forms the nigh inferior office of the coxal bone.
- Ischial tuberosity. The ischial tuberosity is a roughened area that receives weight when yous are sitting.
- Ischial spine. The ischial spine, superior to the tuberosity, is another important anatomical landmark, specially in pregnant women, because information technology narrows the outlet of the pelvis through which the baby must pass during the birth process.
- Greater sciatic notch. Another important structural feature of the ischium is the greater sciatic notch, which allows blood vessels and the large sciatic nerve to pass from the pelvis posteriorly into the thigh.
- Pubis. The pubis, or pubic bone, is the almost anterior part of the coxal os.
- Obturator foramen. An opening that allows blood vessels and fretfulness to laissez passer into the inductive part of the thigh.
- Pubic symphysis. The pubic bones of each hip bones fuse anteriorly to form a cartilaginous joint, the pubic symphysis.
- Acetabulum. The ilium, ischium, and pubis fuse at a deep socket chosen the acetabulum, which means "vinegar loving cup"; the acetabulum receives the head of the thigh bone.
- False pelvis. The false pelvis is superior to the true pelvis; it is the expanse medial to the flaring portions of the ilia.
- True pelvis. The truthful pelvis is surrounded by os and lies junior to the flaring parts of the ilia and the pelvic skirt; the dimensions of the truthful pelvis of the adult female are very important because they must be large enough to allow the infant'southward head to pass during childbirth.
- Outlet and inlet. The dimensions of the cavity, particularly the outlet (the inferior opening of the pelvis measured between the ischial spines, and the inlet (superior opening between the right and left sides of the pelvic brim) are critical, and thus they are carefully measured past the obstetrician.
Bones of the Lower Limbs
The lower limbs bear the total body weight when we are erect; hence, it is not surprising that the bones forming the iii segments of the lower limbs (thigh, leg, and foot) are much thicker and stronger than the comparable basic of the upper limb.
Thigh
The femur, or thigh os, is the but bone in the thigh; information technology is the heaviest, strongest os in the body.
- Parts. Its proximal end has a brawl-similar caput, a neck, and greater and lesser trochanters (separated anteriorly by the intertrochanteric line and posteriorly past the intertrochanteric crest).
- Gluteal tuberosity. These markings and the gluteal tuberosity, located on the shaft, all serve equally sites for musculus attachment.
- Head. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone in a deep, secure socket.
- Neck. Notwithstanding, the neck of the femur is a mutual fracture site, especially in erstwhile historic period.
- Lateral and medial condyles. Distally on the femur are the lateral and medial condyles, which articulate with the tibia beneath; posteriorly these condyles are separated past the deep intercondylar fossa.
- Patellar surface. Anteriorly on the distal femur is the shine patellar surface, which forms a joint with the patella, or kneecap.
Leg
Connected along their length past an interosseous membrane, two bones, the tibia and fibula, form the skeleton of the leg.
- Tibia. The tibia, or shinbone, is larger and more than medial; at the proximal stop, the medial and lateral condyles clear with the distal stop of the femur to form the genu joint.
- Tibial tuberosity. The patellar (kneecap) ligament attaches to the tibial tuberosity, a roughened expanse on the anterior tibial surface.
- Medial malleolus. Distally, a process called medial malleolus forms the inner bulge of the ankle.
- Anterior border. The anterior surface of the tibia is a abrupt ridge, the anterior edge, that is unprotected past the muscles; thus, it is easily felt below the skin.
- Fibula. The fibula, which lies along the tibia and forms joints with it both proximally and distally, is sparse and sticklike; the fibula has no function in forming the knee articulation.
- Lateral malleolus. Its distal end, the lateral malleolus, forms the outer part of the ankle.
Foot
The foot, equanimous of the tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges, has two of import functions.; it supports our body weight and serves as a lever that allows us to propel our bodies forrard when nosotros walk and run.
- Tarsus. the tarsus, forming the posterior half of the pes, is composed of vii tarsal bones.
- Calcaneus and Talus. Body weight is carried by and large by the two largest tarsals, the calcaneus, or heel bone, and the talus (ankle), which lies between the tibia and the calcaneus.
- Metatarsals. V metatarsals course the sole.
- Phalanges. 14 phalanges grade the toes; each toe has 3 phalanges, except the dandy toe, which has two.
- Arches. The bones in the foot are bundled to form three potent arches: two longitudinal (medial and lateral) and one transverse.
Joints
Joints, as well called articulations, have two functions: they hold the bones together securely, merely also requite the rigid skeleton mobility.
- Classification. Joints are classified in ii means- functionally and structurally.
- Functional classification. The functional classification focuses on the amount of movement the joint allows.
- Types of functional joints. There are synarthroses or immovable joints; amphiarthroses, or slightly movable joints, and diarthrosis, or freely movable joints.
- Diarthroses. Freely movable joints predominate in the limbs, where mobility is important.
- Synarthroses and amphiarthroses. Immovable and slightly movable joints are restricted mainly to the centric skeleton, where business firm attachments and protection of internal organs are priorities.
- Structural classification. Structurally, in that location are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints; these classifications are based on whether gristly tissue, cartilage, or a joint crenel separates the bony regions at the joint.
Fibrous Joints
In fibrous joints, the bones are united by gristly tissue.
- Examples. The all-time examples of this type of joint are the sutures of the skull; in sutures, the irregular edges of the bones interlock and are bound tightly together by connective tissue fibers, allowing essentially no movement.
- Syndesmoses. In syndesmoses, the connecting fibers are longer than those of sutures; thus the joint has more "give"; the joint connecting the distal ends of the tibia and fibula is a syndesmosis.
Cartilaginous Joints
In cartilaginous joints, the bone ends are connected by cartilage.
- Examples. Examples of this joint type that are slightly movable are the pubic symphysis of the pelvis and the intervertebral joints of the spinal column, where the articulating bone surfaces are connected by pads (discs) of fibrocartilage.
- Synarthrotic cartilaginous joints. The hyaline cartilage epiphyseal plates of growing long basic and the cartilaginous joints between the commencement ribs and the sternum are immovable cartilaginous joints.
Synovial Joints
Synovial joints are joints in which the articulating bone ends are separated by a joint cavity containing a synovial fluid; they account for all joints of the limbs.
- Articular cartilage. Articular cartilage covers the ends of the bones forming the joints.
- Gristly articular sheathing. The joint surfaces are enclosed by a sleeve or a capsule of fibrous connective tissue, and their capsule is lined with a smooth synovial membrane (the reason these joints are chosen synovial joints).
- Articulation cavity. The articular sheathing encloses a cavity, called the joint cavity, which contains lubricating synovial fluid.
- Reinforcing ligaments. The fibrous capsule is usually reinforced with ligaments.
- Bursae. Bursae are flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and containing a thin film of synovial fluid; they are common where ligaments, muscles, peel, tendons, or bones rub together.
- Tendon sheath. A tendon sheath is essentially an elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon subjected to friction, like a bun around a hotdog.
Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape
The shapes of the articulating os surfaces determine what movements are immune at a joint; based on such shapes, our synovial joints tin can exist classified every bit plane, hinge, pin, condyloid, saddle, and brawl-and-socket joints.
- Plane joint. In a aeroplane joint, the articular surfaces are essentially apartment, and only curt slipping or gliding movements are allowed; the movements of plane joints are nonaxial, that is, gliding does not involve rotation effectually whatsoever axis; the intercarpal joints of the wrist are best examples of plane joints.
- Swivel joint. In a hinge joint, the cylindrical end of one bone fits into a trough-shaped surface on another bone; angular move is immune in just one plane, like a mechanical hinge; hinge joints are classified as uniaxial; they allow motility in only ane centrality, and examples are the elbow joint, ankle joint, and the joints between the phalanges of the fingers.
- Pivot articulation. In a pivot joint, the rounded terminate of i bone fits into a sleeve or band of bone; considering the rotating bone tin can turn only effectually its long axis, pivot joints are also uniaxial joints; the proximal radioulnar joint and the articulation betwixt the atlas and the dens of the axis are examples.
- Condyloid joint. In a condyloid joint, the egg-shaped articular surface fits into an oval concavity in another; condyloid joints allow the moving os to travel (1) from side to side and (2) back and forth but the bone cannot rotate effectually its long axis; movement occurs effectually two axes, hence these are biaxial joints.
- Saddle joints. In saddle joints, each articular surface has both convex and concave areas, like a saddle; these biaxial joints allow essentially the aforementioned movements every bit condyloid joints; the best examples of saddle joints are the carpometacarpal joints in the pollex.
- Ball-and-socket joint. In a ball-and-socket joint, the spherical head of i os fits into a round socket in another; these multiaxial joints allow motility in all axes, including rotation, and are the well-nigh freely moving synovial joints; the shoulder and hip are examples.
Practice Quiz: Skeletal Organisation Anatomy and Physiology
Here's a 10-item quiz about the study guide. Delight visit our nursing test banking concern page for more than NCLEX practice questions.
1. Which of the post-obit is Not considered a function of the skeletal organisation?
A. Back up and protects body structures
B. Storage of minerals
C. Blood cell formation
D. Synthesize Vitamin D
1. Reply: D. Synthesize Vitamin D
D: This is a function of the integumentary arrangement. The organisation synthesizes vitamin D3 which converts to calcitriol, for normal metabolism of calcium.
A: Os is the major supporting tissue of the body and protects internal organs (e.g., ribcage protects the heart, lungs, and other internal organs).
B: Some minerals in the blood are taken into bone and stored. The principal minerals stored are calcium and phosphorus.
C: Many basic contain cavities filled with bone marrow that gives ascension to blood cells.
2. Most of the mineral in bone is in the class of calcium phosphate crystals chosen _________
A. Synovial fluid
B. Marrow
C. Hydroxyapatite
D. Proteoglycans
2. Answer: C. Hydroxyapatite
- C:Hydroxyapatite is a calcium phosphate crystals independent in normal bone. The lattice-like structure of hydroxyapatite crystals accounts for the bones to withstand compression.
- A:Synovial fluid forms a sparse lubricating motion-picture show covering the joint surfaces.
- B: Marrow is the soft tissue in the medullary cavities of the os.
- D : The water-filled proteoglycans makes cartilage smooth and resilient.
3. The following statements are true regarding red bone marrow, except.
A. Red marrow is the just site of blood germination in adults.
B. Adults have more red marrow than children.
C. In adults, it is found in the cancellous bone spaces plant in apartment bones.
D. In children, it is located in the medullary cavity of the long basic.
3. Reply: B. Adults have more red marrow than children.
- B: Children's bone take proportionately more than cherry os marrow than adults. As a person ages, red marrow is more often than not replaced past yellow marrow.
- A:Red bone marrow consists of a delicate, highly vascular fibrous tissue containing claret-forming cell called hematopoietic stem cells .
- C: In adults, red bone marrow is primarily found in the flat bones, such as the pelvic girdle and the sternum.
- D:In children, it is institute in the medullary cavity of the long bones , such as the femur.
4. Nearly of the bones of the upper and lower limbs are long bones; while, the sacrum and facial bones are categorized every bit ________.
A. Irregular basic
B. Flat basic
C. Short bones
D. Sesamoid basic
four. Reply: A. Irregular bones
- A:Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into whatever other category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid). Examples are the irregular bones of the vertebral column, bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium)and facial bones.
- B: Flat bones have relatively thin, flattened shape. Examples are the ribs, scapulae, and the sternum.
- C: Brusk basic are approximately as broad every bit they are long, such as the bones of the wrist and ankles.
- D:Sesamoid bones are basic embedded in tendons. These small, round bones are commonly found in the tendons of the easily, knees, and feet.
5. Suit the following sequence of processes that occur during bone elongation within the epiphyseal plate.
- Calcification
- Proliferation
- Resting
- Hypertrophication
A. 3, 2, 4, i
B. 2, three, 1, iv
C. four, 2, 3, ane
D. ane, 2, 3, 4
5. Answer: A. iii, 2, 4, 1
6. Which type of fracture where the os bends and partially breaks?
A. Comminuted
B. Greenstick
C. Impacted
D. Slpira
six. Answer: B. Greenstick
- B: Greenstick fracture. The fracture extends through a portion of the bone, causing it to curve on the other side.
- A: Comminuted fracture is one in which the bone breaks into more than two fragments.
- C: Impacted fracture occurs when one of the fragments of one part of the bone is driven into the cancellous bone of another fragment.
- D: Spiral fractures are complete fractures of long bones that result from a rotational force practical to the bone.
vii. The articulation between the metatarsal and carpal (trapezium) of the pollex is an instance of
A. Gliding articulation
B. Hinge joint
C. Saddle joint
D. Ball-and-socket joint
seven. Answer: C. Saddle joint
- C: An example of a saddle articulation in the body is the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb that is formed between the trapezium bone and the first metacarpal.
- A: An example of a gliding joint are the articular facets between vertebrae.
- B: An example of a hinge articulation knee, elbow, and finger joints.
- D: An example of a brawl-and-socket joint are the hip and shoulder joints.
8. Osteoclasts remove calcium from the bone, causing blood calcium levels to _______; Osteoblast eolith calcium into bone, causing blood calcium levels to______
A. Increase; Increment
B. Decrease; Increase
C. Decrease; Decrease
D. Increment; Decrease
viii. Answer: D. Increment; Decrease
9. This occurs when osteoblast begin to form bone in connective tissue membranes
A. Endochondral ossification
B. Bone growth
C. Intramembranous ossification
D. Bone remodeling
9. Respond: C. Intramembranous ossification
- C: Intramembranous ossification is the directly laying downwards of bone into the primitive connective tissue (mesenchyme).
- A: Endochondral ossification is the germination of long bones and other basic which include a hyaline cartilage precursor.
- B: Bone growth occurs past the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other connective tissue.
- D: Bone remodeling involves the removal of existing os past osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone by osteoblast.
10. Frank is a seven-yr-old boy who arrived at the emergency section with a history of numerous broken bones. The nurse observed that the client is short for his age, has abnormally curved vertebral column and his limbs are short and bowed. The client is most likely suffering from:
A. Rickets
B. Osteomalacia
C. Osteomyelitis
D. Osteogenesis imperfecta
10. Answer: D. Osteogenesis imperfecta
- D: Osteogenesis imperfecta is a rare disorder caused by i of a number of faulty genes that results in either too piffling collagen germination or a poor quality of collagen. As a outcome, bone matrix has decreased flexibility and is more than hands broken than normal os.
- A: Rickets is a condition involving growth retardation resulting from nutritional deficiencies. The condition results in basic that are soft, weak, and easily broken.
- B: Osteomalacia or the softening of the bones, results from calcium depletion from basic.
- C: Osteomyelitis is bone inflammation that oft results from bacterial inflammation, and information technology tin can lead to the destruction of the bone.
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Source: https://nurseslabs.com/skeletal-system/
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